Filipino Senior High School Students’ Perceived Stress and Coping Strategies in the Post-Pandemic Context
Abstract
Purpose of the study: This study aimed to determine the levels of perceived stress and coping strategies among Filipino senior high school students in the post-pandemic context and to examine the relationships between their stress and coping strategies.
Methodology: The study employed a descriptive-correlational design using validated survey instruments, namely the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and the Filipino Coping Strategies Scale (FCS). Data were collected through an online self-administered questionnaire among senior high school students in Central Visayas, Philippines, following ethical and consent procedures. The data were analyzed using SPSS, applying descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and Pearson product–moment correlation to examine the relationship between perceived stress and coping strategies.
Main Findings: Students reported high levels of perceived stress and generally high coping strategies, with religiosity being very high. Moderate coping strategies included overactivity and emotional release, while substance use was low. Correlations showed negligible but significant positive relationships between stress and most coping strategies, except religiosity, which was not significant.
Novelty/Originality of this study: This study integrates the Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping with the Grounded Theory of Filipino Well-Being (Kaginhawaan), providing culturally contextualized insights into student stress and coping in the post-pandemic era. It advances knowledge by highlighting Filipino-specific coping mechanisms and their relevance in educational and guidance practices, offering practical implications for supporting student resilience.
References
C. J. Estrellado, “Transition to post-pandemic education in the Philippines,” Int. J. Sci. Res. Pub., vol. 11, pp. 2250-3153, 2021. doi: 10.29322/IJSRP.11.12.2021.p12074
M. M. J. Olvido, J. M. P. Sanchez, and I. M. V. Alejandro, “Impact of distance learning on the university students’ academic performance and experiences,” Int. J. Eval. Res. Educ., vol. 13, pp. 2116-2125, 2024. doi: 10.11591/ijere.v13i4.25847
R. Mohalik and S. Sahoo, “E-readiness and perception of student teachers’ towards online learning in the midst of COVID-19 pandemic,” SSRN. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3666914
C. B. Agaton and L. J. Cueto, “Learning at home: Parents’ lived experiences on distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines,” Int. J. Eval. Res. Educ., vol. 10, pp. 901-911, 2021. doi: 10.11591/ijere.v10i3.21136
C. Goles, J. M. Sanchez, G. Sumalinog, J. Mananay, and I. M. Alejandro, “Beyond the pandemic: The changing landscape of technology integration in higher education in Central Visayas, Philippines,” CTU J. Innov. Sustain. Dev., vol. 16, pp. 150-159, 2024. doi: 10.22144/ctujoisd.2024.262
L. Elsalem, N. Al-Azzam, A. A. Jum’ah, N. Obeidat, A. M. Sindiani, and K. A. Kheirallah, “Stress and behavioral changes with remote E-exams during the Covid-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study among undergraduates of medical sciences,” Ann. Med. Surg., vol. 60, pp. 271-279, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.amsu.2020.10.058
M. G. Acosta-Gómez, J. M. Dela Rosa-Chiapas, A. Zavala-Bervena, A. E. R. Cisneros, V. R. Péres, C. D. S. Rodrigues, and K. Novack, “Stress in high school students: A descriptive study,” J. Cogn. Behav. Ther., vol. 1, pp. 1-10, 2018.
C. Fernandez, M. Balijon, and I. Ancho, “Career preferences of Filipino senior high school students,” CTU J. Innov. Sustain. Dev., vol. 15, pp. 81-91, 2023. doi: 10.22144/ctujoisd.2023.053
E. Gimarino, “Career choice and self-efficacy toward senior high school students’ career goals in the Philippines,” Indo. J. Educ. Res., vol. 5, pp. 187-195, 2024. doi: 10.37251/ijoer.v5i5.1079
M. C. Pascoe, S. E. Hetrick, and A. G. Parker, “The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education,” Int. J. Adolesc. Youth, vol. 25, pp. 104-112, 2020. doi: 10.1080/02673843.2019.1596823
S. Gamonal-Limcaoco, E. Montero-Mateos, M. T. Lozano-López, A. Maciá-Casas, J. Matías-Fernández, and C. Roncero, “Perceived stress in different countries at the beginning of the coronavirus pandemic,” Int. J. Psychiatry Med., vol. 57, pp. 309-322. doi: 10.1177/00912174211033710
S. Y. Parvar, N. Ghamari, F. Pezeshkian, and R. Shahriarirad, “Prevalence of anxiety, depression, stress, and perceived stress and their relation with resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, a cross-sectional study,” Int. J. Adolesc. Youth, vol. 25, pp. 104-112, 2022. doi: 10.1002/hsr2.460
R. Tindle, A. Hemi, and A. A. Moustafa, “Social support, psychological flexibility and coping mediate the association between COVID-19 related stress exposure and psychological distress,” Sci. Rep., vol. 12, 2022. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-12262-w
H. M. Stallman, “Health theory of coping,” Austral. Psych., vol. 55, pp. 295-306, 2020. doi: 10.1111/ap.12465
C. Xie and Y. Kim, “Post-traumatic growth during COVID-19: The role of perceived social support, personality, and coping strategies,” Healthcare, vol. 10, 2-22. doi: 10.3390/healthcare10020224
M. O’Driscoll, L. J. Sahm, H. Byrne, S. Lambert, and S. Byrne, “Impact of a mindfulness-based intervention on undergraduate pharmacy students’ stress and distress: Quantitative results of a mixed-methods study,” Curr. Pharm. Teach. Learn., vol. 11, pp. 876-887, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.cptl.2019.05.014
A. Riepenhausen, C. Wackerhagen, Z. C. Reppmann, H. C. Deter, R. Kalisch, I. M. Veer, and H. Walter, “Positive cognitive reappraisal in stress resilience, mental health, and well-being: A comprehensive systematic review,” Emot. Rev., vol. 14, pp. 310-331, 2022. doi: 10.1177/17540739221114642
R. S. Lazarus and S. Folkman, “Cognitive theories of stress and the issue of circularity,” in Dynamics of Stress, Boston, MA: Springer, 1986, pp. 63-80
M. C. F. Samaco-Zamora and K. T. G. Fernadez, “A grounded theory of Filipino wellness (kaginhawaan),” Psych. Stud., vol. 61, pp. 279-287, 2016. doi: 10.1007/s12646-016-0373-7
G. G. Sumalinog, V. Cortes, R. Alalid, T. M. Navarro, C. Cordova-Espera, and C. Bercede-Fernandez, “Experiences of school administrators during limited face-to-face classes,” Int. J. Learn. Teach. Educ. Res., vol. 23, pp. 309-328, 2024. doi: 10.26803/ijlter.23.8.16
J. M. Lappe, “Taking the mystery out of research: Descriptive correlational design,” Orthopaedic Nursing, vol. 19, 2000.
E. Rahm and H. H. Do, “Data cleaning: Problems and current approaches,” IEE Data Eng. Bull., vol. 23, pp. 3-13, 2000.
J. de Uña-Álvarez, “Testing for an ignorable sampling bias under random double truncation,” arXiv, 2023. doi: 10.48550/arXiv.2301.03698
G. K. Mweshi and K. Sakyi, “Application of sampling methods for the research design,” Arch. Bus. Rev., vol. 8, pp. 180-193, 2020. doi: 10.14738/abr.811.9042
R. Ismawati, S. Mulyono, and R. Astuti, “Influences of compensation and career improvement on teacher performance through work motivation,” Int. J. Soc. Sci. Res. Rev., vol. 6, pp. 193-203, 2023. doi: 10.47814/ijssrr.v6i1.887
J. A. A. Domantay, “Health-related quality of life of future physicians at a medical school in the Philippines: A cross-sectional study,” Sage Open, vol. 4, 2014. doi: 10.1177/2158244014545459
R. M. Oducado, J. Rabacal, and K. Tamdag, “Perceived stress due to COVID-19 pandemic among employed professional teachers,” Int. J. Educ. Res. Innov., vol. 15, pp. 305-316, 2021. doi: 10.46661/ijeri.5284
J. R. Rilveria, “The development of the Filipino coping strategies scale,” Asia-Pac. Soc. Sci. Rev., vol. 18, pp. 111-126, 2018. doi: 10.59588/2350-8329.1151
D. Mergel, “Data structures, excel and python basics,” In Physics with Excel and Python: Using the Same Data Structure Volume I: Basics, Exercies and Tasks, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023, pp. 15-73
B. Djordjević, A. S. Mane, and E. Krmac, “Analysis of dependency and importance of key indicators of railway sustainability monitoring: A new integrated approach with DEA and Pearson correlation,” Res. Transport. Bus. Manage., vol. 41, 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.rtbm.2021.100650
J. Benesty, J. Chen, and Y. Huang, “On the importance of the Pearson correlation coefficient in noise reduction,” IEEE Trans. Audio Speech Lang. Process., vol. 16, pp. 757-765, 2008. doi: 10.1109/TASL.2008.919072
B. Q. Ford, P. Lam, O. P. John, and I. B. Mauss, “The psychological health benefits of accepting negative emotions and thoughts: Laboratory, diary, and longitudinal evidence,” J. Person. Soc. Psych., vol. 119, pp. 1093-1115, 2020. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000157
P. Maitra, “Schooling and educational attainment: Evidence from Bangladesh,” Educ. Econ., vol. 11, pp. 129-153, 2003. doi: 10.1080/09645290210131665
A. Ardilla, M. Rosselli, M., E. Matute, and S. Guajardo, “The influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions,” Dev. Neuropsych., vol. 28, pp. 539-560, 2005. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5
M. Shao, W. He, L. Zhao, & Y. Su, “The influence of parental involvement on parent satisfactiom: The moderating effect of parental educational level and the number of children,” Front. Psych., vol. 12, 2022. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.752802
H. Bras, and J. Mandemakers, “Maternal education and sibling inequalities in child nutritional status in Ethiopia,” SSM Pop. Health, vol. 17, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101041
Y. C. Her, J. Vergauwen, and D. Mortelmans, “Nest leaver or home stayer? Sibling influence on parental home leaving in the United Kingdom,” Adv. Life Course Res., vol. 52, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.alcr.2022.100464
U. Toseeb, “Sibling conflict during COVID-19 in families with special educational needs and disabilities,” Brit. J. Educ. Psych., vol. 92, pp. 319-339, 2022. doi: 10.1111/bjep.12451
C. Xie and Y. Kim, “Post-traumatic growth during COVID-19: The role of perceived social support, personality, and coping strategies,” Healthcare, vol. 10, 2-22. doi: 10.3390/healthcare10020224
L. P. Alampay and A. S. Garcia, “Education and parenting in the Philippines,” In School Systems, Parent Behavior, and Academic Achievement: Young People and Learning Processes in School and Everyday Life, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019
S. L. S. Daway-Ducanes, E. E. Pernia, and V. J. R. Ramos, “On the “income advantage” in course choices and admissions: Evidence from the University of the Philippines,” Int. J. Educ. Dev., vol. 91, 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102578
C. Ricciardi and A. Winsler, “Selection into advanced courses in middle and high school among low-income, ethnically diverse youth,” J. Adv. Acad., vol. 32, pp. 291-323, 2021. doi: 10.1177/1932202X21990096
M. B. Bin Heyat, F. Akhtar, S. J. Abbas, M. Al-Sarem, A. Alqarafi, A. Stalin, R. Abbasi, A. Y. Muaad, D. Lai, and K. Wu, “Wearable flexible electronics based cardiac electrode for researcher mental stress detection system using machine learning models on single lead electrocardiogram signal,” Biosensors, vol. 12, 2022. doi: 10.3390/bios12060427
K I. Pargament, “Religion and coping: The current state of knowledge,” In The Oxford Handbook of Stress, Health, and Coping, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
A. W. Braam, H. G. Koenig, and Religion, Spirituality, and Positive Pyschology Working Group, “Religion, spirituality, and mental health: Current controversies and future directions,” J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., vol. 207, pp. 838-842, 2019. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e31826b6dle
F. Del Castillo and M. A. Alino, “Religious coping of selected Filipino Catholic youth,” Relig, vol. 11, 2020. doi: 10.3390/rel11090462
M. D. Thompson, B. S. Draper, and C. M. Keitler, “The relationship between stress, coping strategies, and problem-solving skills among college students,” Inq. J., vol. 14, 2022.
B. Ozgundondu and Z. G. Metin, “Effects of progressive muscle relaxation combined with music on stress, fatigue, and coping styles among intensive care nurses,” Intensive Crit. Care Nurs., vol. 54, pp. 54-63, 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.iccn.2019.07.007
P. A. Rodel, Culture and Customs of the Philippines, Manila: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002
E. F. Acoba, “Social support and mental health: The mediating role of perceived stress,” Front. Psych., vol. 15,2024. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1330720
A. M. Cybulska, K. Rachubiňska, M. Stanislawska, S. Grochans, A. Cymbaluk-Ploska, and E. Grochans, “Analysis of factors related to mental health, suppression of emotions, and personality influencing coping with stress among nurses,” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, vol. 19, 2022. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19169777
L. J. Lazaro-Quilang and M. Palattao-Dayawon, “Academic rope to cope: Teachers’ coping strategy to academic anxiety,” J. Human Behav. Soc. Environ., vol. 34, pp. 684-692, 2024. doi: 10.1080/10911359.2023.2215271
M. L. Arellano-Carandang, Filipino Children Under Stress: Family Dynamics and Therapy, Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1995
Rabago-Mingoa, T., “Filipino teachers’ stress levels and coping strategies,” DLSU Research Congress, 2017.
L. K. Delgra, U. E. Dotimas, K. B. Dumas, E. R. Lumpay, and R. J. Guanco, “Mediating role of coping strategies on the symptoms of complicated grief and psychological well-being during COVID-19 pandemic,” 9th Int. Scholar’s Conf. Proceed., 2023
A. López, R. Sanderman, and M. J. Schroevers, “A close examination of the relationship between self-compassion and depressive symptoms,” Mindfulness, vol. 9, pp. 1470-1478, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s12671-018-0891-6
M. Z. Yuan, H. F. Chen, C. C. Yang, T. H. Chow, and C. H. Hsu, “The relationship between medical staff’s emotional labor, leisure coping strategies, workplace spirituality, and organizational commitment during the COVID-19 pandemic,” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, vol. 19, 2022. doi: 10.3390/ijerph19106186
N. D. Volkow and C. Blanco, “Substance use disorders: A comprehensive update of classification, epidemiology, neurobiology, clinical aspects, treatment and prevention,” World Psychiatry, vol. 22, pp. 203-229, 2020. doi: 10.1002/wps.21073
C. Xie and Y. Kim, “Post-traumatic growth during COVID-19: The role of perceived social support, personality, and coping strategies,” Healthcare, vol. 10, 2-22. doi: 10.3390/healthcare10020224
R. A. Alves, T. A. Penna, V. B. Paravidino, and A. J. Oliveira, “Association between occupational stress, social support at work, and physical activity in outsourced workers,” Rev. Bras. Med. Trab., vol. 20, pp. 615-623, 2023. doi: 10.47626/1679-4435-2022-804
L. Y. Olimov and Z. M. Maxmudova, “Psychological peculiarities in stressful situations and social psychological features of coping behavior manisfestation,” Sci. Educ., vol. 3, pp. 1324-1333, 2019.
A. Moreira-Almedia, F. L. Neto, and H. G. Koenig, “Religiousness and mental health: A review,” Braz. J. Psychiatry, vol. 38, pp. 242-250, 2006. doi: 10.1590/s1516-44462006000300018
E. Andreou, E. C. Alexopoulos, C. Lionis, L.Varvogli, C. Gnardellis, G. P. Chrousos, and C. Darviri, “Perceived stress scale: Reliability and validity study in Greece,” Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, vol. 8, pp. 3287-3298, 2011. doi: 10.3390/ijerph8083287
S. Cohen, T. Kamarck, and R. Mermelstein, “A global measure of perceived stress,” J. Health Soc. Behav., vol. 24, pp. 385-396, 1983. doi: 10.2307/2136404
J. O. Serrano, M. E. S. Reyes, and A. B. de Guzman, “Pyschological distress and coping of Filipino university students amidst the global pandemic: A mixed-method study,” J. Pos. Sch. Pysch., vol. 6, pp. 373-386, 2022.
A. Biggs, P. Brough, and S. Drummond, “Lazarus and Folkman’s psychological stress and coping theory,” The Handbook of Stress and Health: A Guide to Research and Practice, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2017
J. J. B. A. Aruta, “Socio-ecological determinants of distress in Filipino adults during COVID-19 crisis,” Curr. Psych., vol. 41, pp. 7482-7492, 2021. doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-01322-x
K. L. Nadal, Filipino Amercian Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2021
J. M. P. Sanchez, B. A. Alejandro, M. M. J. Olvido, and I. M. V. Alejandro, “An analysis of online classes tweets using Gephi: Inputs for online learning,” Int. J. Info. Educ. Technol., vol. 11, pp. 583-589, 2021. doi: 10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.12.1568
I. M. V. Alejandro, J. M. P. Sanchez, G. G. Sumalinog, J. A. Mananay, C. E. Goles, and C. B. Fernandez, “Pre-service teachers’ technology acceptance of artificial intelligence (AI) applications in education,” STEME Education, vol. 4, pp. 445-465, 2024. doi: 10.3934/steme.2024024
R. Flores-Buils and R. Mateu-Pérez, “Influence of decision-making styles on academic stress and resilience: An approach for educational intervention,” Psych. Sch., pp. 1-10, 2025. doi: 10.1002/pits.23603
F. A. del Castillo, C. D. del Castillo, and J. C. Corpuz, “Dungaw: Re-imagined religious expression in response to the COVID-19 pandemic,” J. Relig. Health, vol. 60, pp. 2285-2305, 2021. doi: 10.1007/s10943-021-01266-x
M. N. Q. Cadosales, J. M. P. Sanchez, M. E. Cordova, J. A. Merin, and W. S. Augusto, “Exploring the predictive influence of licensure examination results for beginning teachers’ performance: The case of the Philippines,” Front. Educ., vol. 8, 2023. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1252368
M. Hechanova, P. Docena, L. Alampay, A. Acosta, E. Porio, I. Melgar, and R. Berger, “Evaluation of a resilience intervention for Filipino displaced survivors of Super Typhoon Haiyan.” Disaster Prevention and Management, vol. 27, pp. 346-359, 2018. doi: 10.1108/DPM-01-2018-0001
C. Fernandez, “Literature review designs in practice: Graduate students’ perspectives from a teacher education program,” Internet Ref. Serv. Quart., vol. 29, 2025. doi: 10.1080/10875301.2025.2520829
E. L. Abao, J. A. M. Petancio, J. M. P. Sanchez, and G. G. Sumalinog, “Performance of beginning teachers in the licensure examination for teachers: A national study,” Front. Educ., vol. 8, 2023. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2023.1240658
G. H. Gonzales, K. Despe, L. Iway, R. J. Genon, J. Intano, and J. M. Sanchez, “Online collaborative learning platforms in science: Their influence on attitude, achievement, and experiences,” J. Educ. Technol. Instruct., vol. 2, pp. 1-16, 2023. doi: 10.70290/jeti.v2i2.55
Copyright (c) 2026 Celosteo A Viilaceran

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and acknowledge that the Indonesian Journal of Education Research (IJoER) is the first publisher licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges and earlier and greater citation of published work.





.png)
.png)



















