Journal of Language, Literature, and Educational Research

an Open Access Journal

The Evolution of the ESL Learner: A Review of Affective, Structural, and Cultural Hurdles from Literacy to Native-Like Fluency

Mardy Serey
Svay Rieng University ROR
Cambodia
sereymardy@gmail.com
Chanrathany Sam
Cambodia
Sannisa Seng
Cambodia
Toknoy San
Cambodia
Sam Et Ry
Cambodia
Soeung Sit
Cambodia
Sophat Phon
Cambodia
Share

  • Purpose of the study: This comprehensive review article synthesizes current literature on second language acquisition (SLA) to examine the primary hurdles ESL learners encounter throughout their evolutionary trajectory - from basic literacy to native-like fluency. The paper aims to provide a holistic understanding of the learner's experience and to evaluate pedagogical interventions designed to mitigate these hurdles.

    Methodology: The study methodology is narrative/integrative literature review. It integrates theoretical perspectives and empirical research into SLA with literature based on established theoretical models including Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis, Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System, Selinker’s Interlanguage Theory, the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development. Since this methodology was conceptual and desk-based, there was no primary data collection.

    Main Findings: The review also finds that achieving native-like fluency requires not only cognitive and linguistic development but also profound socio-emotional adaptation. Pedagogical interventions, such as scaffolding, communicative language teaching, and translanguaging, are identified as effective strategies for mitigating these hurdles.

    Novelty/Originality of this study: Novelty of this paper is that it adopts a tripartite, integrative framework focusing on affective, structural, and cultural barriers in a single review — it deviates from previous studies that examine these domains in isolation. By mapping the ESL learner's entire developmental trajectory from literacy to native-like fluency through this holistic lens, the paper advocates for a novel, inclusive, culturally responsive, and psychologically supportive ESL educational framework that addresses the learner as a whole person rather than merely a linguistic processor.

  • How to cite

    The Evolution of the ESL Learner: A Review of Affective, Structural, and Cultural Hurdles from Literacy to Native-Like Fluency. (2026). Journal of Language, Literature, and Educational Research, 3(1), 146-152. https://doi.org/10.37251/jolle.v3i1.3303

    More Citation Formats

  • 4
    Abstract views
    0
    Downloads

    Metrics — Badges

    1. [1] M. Shortt, S. Tilak, I. Kuznetcova, and B. Martens, “Gamification in mobile assisted language learning: A systematic review of duolingo literature from public release of 2012 to early 2020,” Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn., vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 517–554, 2023, doi: 10.1080/09588221.2021.1933540.
    2. [2] N. Semushina and R. Mayberry, “Number stroop effects in arabic digits and asl number signs: The impact of age and setting of language acquisition,” Lang. Learn. Dev., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 95–123, 2023, doi: 10.1080/15475441.2022.2047689.
    3. [3] M. Noroozi and S. Taheri, “Task based language assessment: A compatible approach to assess the efficacy of task based language teaching vs. Present, practice, produce,” Cogent Educ., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–21, 2022, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2022.2105775.
    4. [4] D. Gorter, J. Cenoz, and K. Van Der Worp, “The linguistic landscape as a resource for language learning and raising language awareness,” J. Spanish Lang. Teach., vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 161–181, 2021, doi: 10.1080/23247797.2021.2014029.
    5. [5] H. Clahsen, A. Jessen, and A. Jessen, “Morphological generalization in bilingual language production: Age of acquisition determines variability,” Lang. Acquis., vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 370–386, 2021, doi: 10.1080/10489223.2021.1910267.
    6. [6] M. A. Qureshi and A. Aljanadbah, “Translanguaging and reading comprehension in a second language,” Int. Multiling. Res. J., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 247–257, 2022, doi: 10.1080/19313152.2021.2009158.
    7. [7] C. Leung, “English as an additional language: A close to practice view of teacher professional knowledge and professionalism,” Lang. Educ., vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 170–187, 2022, doi: 10.1080/09500782.2021.1980003.
    8. [8] E. Ka et al., “How do chinese as a second language (csl) learners acquire orthographic knowledge: Component, structure and position regularity,” Lang. Aware., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 297–316, 2021, doi: 10.1080/09658416.2021.1972115.
    9. [9] B. Mac Gearailt, G. Mac Ruairc, C. Murray, B. Mac, G. Mac Ruairc, and C. Murray, “Actualising content and language integrated learning (clil) in irish medium education; Why, how and why now?,” Irish Educ. Stud., vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 39–57, 2023, doi: 10.1080/03323315.2021.1910971.
    10. [10] I. N. Jensen, N. Mitrofanova, M. Anderssen, Y. Rodina, R. Slabakova, and M. Westergaard, “Crosslinguistic influence in l3 acquisition across linguistic modules,” Int. J. Multiling., vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 717–734, 2023, doi: 10.1080/14790718.2021.1985127.
    11. [11] M. Tang, “Crosslinguistic influence on chinese efl learners acquisition of english finite and nonfinite distinctions,” Cogent Educ., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–17, 2020, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2020.1721642.
    12. [12] P. Auer and U. Røyneland, “Modelling acquisition and use of dialectal, standard and multiethnolectal features in migratory contexts across europe,” J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev., vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 1035–1042, 2025, doi: 10.1080/01434632.2020.1730385.
    13. [13] T. Morita-mullaney, J. Renn, M. M. Chiu, T. Morita-mullaney, and J. Renn, “Spanish language proficiency in dual language and english as a second language models: The impact of model, time, teacher, and student on spanish language development,” Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling., vol. 25, no. 10, pp. 3888–3906, 2022, doi: 10.1080/13670050.2022.2089012.
    14. [14] H. C. Chen, J. X. Tian, and H. C. Chen, “The roles of Cantonese speakers l1 and l2 phonological features in l3 pronunciation acquisition,” Int. J. Multiling., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 1–17, 2024, doi: 10.1080/14790718.2021.1993231.
    15. [15] F. J. Guzmán-muñoz, “Effects of making errors in learning a foreign language,” J. Cogn. Psychol., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 229–241, 2020, doi: 10.1080/20445911.2020.1711766.
    16. [16] Y. Kosyakova, C. Kristen, C. Spörlein, and C. Kristen, “The dynamics of recent refugees language acquisition: How do their pathways compare to those of other new immigrants ?,” J. Ethn. Migr. Stud., vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 989–1012, 2022, doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2021.1988845.
    17. [17] M. Rickert, “Categorisation as positioning practice in a dutch as second language classroom,” J. Lang. Identity Educ., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 197–209, 2024, doi: 10.1080/15348458.2021.1981136.
    18. [18] C. Hedman, U. Magnusson, and U. Magnusson, “Teachers acts of legitimation in second language education in swedish upper secondary schools,” Lang. Educ., vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 535–552, 2020, doi: 10.1080/09500782.2020.1775245.
    19. [19] H. Zhao and H. Liu, “(Standard) language ideology and regional putonghua in chinese social media: A view from weibo,” J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev., vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 882–896, 2021, doi: 10.1080/01434632.2020.1814310.
    20. [20] K. A. Sendur, J. Van Drie, C. Van Boxtel, and K. Kan, “Historical reasoning in an undergraduate clil course: Students progression and the role of language proficienc,” Int. J. Biling. Educ. Biling., vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 2058–2074, 2022, doi: 10.1080/13670050.2020.1844136.
    21. [21] H. Banaruee, O. Khatin-zadeh, and D. Farsani, “The challenge of psychological processes in language acquisition: A systematic review,” Cogent Arts Humanit., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 2023, doi: 10.1080/23311983.2022.2157961.
    22. [22] L. Grundlingh, “Laughing online: Investigating written laughter, language identity and their implications for language acquisition,” Cogent Educ., vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 1–8, 2020, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2020.1738810.
    23. [23] K. Thompson et al., “Sleep and second language acquisition revisited: The role of sleep spindles and rapid eye movements,” Nat. Sci. Sleep, vol. 16, no. 08, pp. 1887–1902, 2021, doi: 10.2147/NSS.S326151.
    24. [24] Y. Dong and B. W. Chow, “Home literacy environment and english as a second language acquisition: A meta analysis,” Lang. Learn. Dev., vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 485–499, 2022, doi: 10.1080/15475441.2021.2003197.
    25. [25] R. Woore and R. Woore, “What can second language acquisition research tell us about the phonics ‘pillar’?,” Lang. Learn. J., vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 172–185, 2022, doi: 10.1080/09571736.2022.2045683.
    26. [26] F. F. Lundell, K. Arvidsson, M. Bouchard, and F. F. Lundell, “Language ideologies and second language acquisition: The case of French long term residents in Sweden,” J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev., vol. 45, no. 8, pp. 3434–3449, 2024, doi: 10.1080/01434632.2022.2099408.
    27. [27] S. G. Pennelle, R. E. Case, and G. Williams, “Bilingual paraprofessionals in the second language acquisition classroom,” Educ. Inq., vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 251–266, 2023, doi: 10.1080/20004508.2021.1994117.
    28. [28] B. Christophers and B. Christophers, “Fossilised capital: Price and profit in the energy transition,” New Polit. Econ., vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 146–159, 2022, doi: 10.1080/13563467.2021.1926957.
    29. [29] S. P. Zondi, S. Mbatha, and F. Group, “Probing into esl teachers use of translanguaging: Perspectives and operationalisations,” South. African Linguist. Appl. Lang. Stud., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 12–26, 2026, doi: 10.2989/16073614.2025.2498946.
    30. [30] L. X. Li, “Developmental patterns of english modal verbs in the writings of Chinese learners of english: A corpus based approach,” Cogent Educ., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–23, 2022, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2022.2050457.
    31. [31] E. T. Murtisari et al., “Beyond error correction: Lower proficiency efl learners engagement with grammarly,” Lang. Aware., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–26, 2025, doi: 10.1080/09658416.2025.2585004.
    32. [32] L. Mariappan, “Examining the influence of outdoor experiential learning on ESL vocabulary retention,” Cogent Educ., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1–23, 2025, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2025.2516871.
    33. [33] L. Stoffelsma, V. Antwi, and R. Hanson, “Incidental vocabulary learning in a postcolonial english second language context,” Lang. Matters, vol. 55, no. 2, pp. 92–113, 2024, doi: 10.1080/10228195.2024.2341010.
    34. [34] N. I. Ishak, S. Soraya, L. Abdullah, N. Z. Alias, H. Jamil, and G. I. Uktamovich, “Characteristics of esl family literacy programmes: A systematic literature review,” Cogent Educ., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1–18, 2025, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2025.2494454.
    35. [35] M. Tian and M. Tian, “Bridging global and local: exploring glocal learning contexts in an adult esl classroom,” J. Multiling. Multicult. Dev., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 2025, doi: 10.1080/01434632.2025.2503419.
    36. [36] N. Rahnuma, “Exploring esl students experiences of academic writing in higher education a cultural historical activity theory perspective,” Educ. Inq., vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 303–325, 2025, doi: 10.1080/20004508.2023.2222450.
    37. [37] A. Hashemifardnia, S. Shafiee, and F. R. Esfahani, “Effects of flipped instruction on iranian intermediate efl learners speaking complexity, accuracy, and fluenc,” Cogent Educ., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–20, 2021, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2021.1987375.
    38. [38] M. Majeed and F. R. Dar, “Investigating the efficacy of blended learning in esl classrooms,” Cogent Educ., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–17, 2022, doi: 10.1080/2331186X.2022.2133500.
    39. [39] S. Haroon, M. Aslam, and T. Saleem, “Exploring the cross linguistic functioning of the principles of wh movements: The case of Pakistani esl learners,” Cogent Arts Humanit., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 2023, doi: 10.1080/23311983.2023.2174518.
    40. [40] A. M. Abbasi et al., “Effects of flipped instruction on iranian intermediate efl learners speaking complexity, accuracy, and fluenc,” Cogent Arts Humanit., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 1–23, 2023, doi: 10.1080/23311983.2023.2281019.
    41. [41] J. K. Basak, F. G. Okyere, E. Arulmozhi, F. Khan, and H. T. Kim, “Artificial neural networks and multiple linear regression as potential methods for modelling body surface temperature of pig,” J. Appl. Anim. Res. ISSN, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 207–219, 2020, doi: 10.1080/09712119.2020.1761818.
    42. [42] A. Bouasria, K. I. Namr, A. Rahimi, E. Mostafa, and B. Rerhou, “Evaluation of Landsat 8 image pansharpening in estimating soil organic matter using multiple linear regression and artificial neural networks,” Geo-spatial Inf. Sci., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 353–364, 2022, doi: 10.1080/10095020.2022.2026743.
    43. [43] S. N. Ahmed, R. Jhaj, B. Sadasivam, and R. Joshi, “Prediction of left ventricular mass index using electrocardiography in essential hypertension a multiple linear regression model,” Med. Devices Evid. Res., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 163–172, 2020, doi: 10.2147/MDER.S253792.
    44. [44] F. Xia et al., “Exploring the association of antimicrobial use with serratia marcescens resistance rates via multiple linear regression,” Infect. Drug Resist., vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 4039–4051, 2025, doi: 10.2147/IDR.S527225.