Integrated Science Education Journal
Integrated Science Education Journal

an Open Access Journal

SINTA

6.1

Impact

GScholar

18

H-Index

Integrated Science Education Journal

an Open Access Journal

Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PWM and MPPT Controllers in Improving the Performance of Off-Grid Solar Power Plants in NFT Hydroponic Systems

Tegar Satrio Wibowo ORCID
Universitas Muhamadiyah Surakarta
Indonesia
tegartresno12@gmail.com
Muhammad Kusban ORCID
Universitas Muhamadiyah Surakarta
Indonesia
Share

  • Purpose of the study: The decreasing availability of agricultural land and the growing demand for sustainable food production have encouraged the adoption of hydroponic cultivation systems supported by renewable energy sources. In off-grid Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) hydroponic systems, the reliability of electrical power—particularly for continuous pump operation—is critical for plant growth.

    Methodology: A quantitative experimental approach was employed using a 50 Wp solar panel, a 12 V 10 Ah battery, and a 12 W DC water pump operating under identical system configurations. Electrical parameters, including charging voltage, current, and power, were measured during daylight hours, while nighttime pump operating duration was used as a functional performance indicator.

    Main Findings: The results demonstrate that the MPPT controller consistently produced higher and more stable charging power (up to 13.05 W) compared to the PWM controller (approximately 12 W). This improved charging performance translated into longer nighttime pump operation, with MPPT sustaining operation for up to 11 hours 40 minutes, whereas PWM supported only 9 hours 30 minutes to 10 hours 15 minutes. The findings confirm that MPPT controllers are more effective in optimizing solar energy utilization and enhancing battery endurance in real-world hydroponic applications.

    Novelty/Originality of this study: The novelty of this study lies in its integration of electrical performance analysis with practical operational outcomes, offering applied insights for the design of reliable and sustainable solar-powered hydroponic systems, particularly in regions with limited grid access.

  • How to cite

    [1]
    “Evaluation of the Effectiveness of PWM and MPPT Controllers in Improving the Performance of Off-Grid Solar Power Plants in NFT Hydroponic Systems”, In. Sci. Ed. J, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 202–211, Jan. 2026, doi: 10.37251/isej.v7i1.2526.

    More Citation Formats

  • 219
    Abstract views
    223
    Downloads

    Metrics — Badges

    1. A. Sudomo, B. Leksono, H. L. Tata, A. A. D. Rahayu, A. Umroni, H. Rianawati, A. Asmaliyah, K. Krisnawati, A. Setyayudi, M. M. B. Utomo, L. V. A. Pieter, A. Wresta, Y. Indrajaya, S. A. Rahman, and H. Baral, “Can agroforestry contribute to food and livelihood security for Indonesia’s smallholders in the climate change era?,” Agriculture, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1896, 2023, doi: 10.3390/agriculture13101896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13101896
    2. R. A. Budi Kusumo, G. Kurnia, I. Setiawan, and R. Tirtosudarmo, “Migration and farmer household livelihood strategies: Factors influencing the decision to migrate,” Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, vol. 31, no. 1, 2023, doi: 10.47836/pjssh.31.1.04. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47836/pjssh.31.1.04
    3. A. H. Harianja, Y. Adalina, G. Pasaribu, I. Winarni, R. Maharani, A. Fernandes, ... and H. Kuspradini, “Potential of beekeeping to support the livelihood, economy, society, and environment of Indonesia,” Forests, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 321, 2023, doi: 10.3390/f14020321. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/f14020321
    4. S. Setiani, D. E. Wijayanti, and M. W. Priyanto, “Determinant of maize farmers household food security in dry land Madura Island, Indonesia,” Agrisocionomics: Jurnal Sosial Ekonomi Pertanian, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 41-56, 2025, doi: 10.14710/agrisocionomics.v9i1.23053. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/agrisocionomics.v9i1.23053
    5. B. S. Situmorang, R. F. Putri, S. R. Giyarsih, G. T. Gunawan, and G. J. Yustindra, “The dynamics of extreme poverty: Livelihood and empowerment strategies in a West Java Village, Indonesia,” GeoJournal, vol. 90, no. 6, pp. 1-12, 2025, doi: 10.1007/s10708-025-11536-w. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-025-11536-w
    6. A. Fussy, and J. Papenbrock, “An overview of soil and soilless cultivation techniques—chances, challenges and the neglected question of sustainability,” Plants, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 1153, 2022, doi: 10.3390/plants11091153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11091153
    7. H. Kuriyal, I. Shah, S. Rana, and A. Kumar, “Chapter-15 hydroponics or soil-less farming technology in horticulture,” Modern Concepts in Farming, vol. 199, 2022.
    8. A. Sharma, C. Manpoong, V. S. Devadas, B. D. Kartha, H. Pandey, and M. Wangsu, “Crop hydroponics, phyto-hydroponics, crop production, and factors affecting soilless culture,” ACS Agricultural Science & Technology, vol.2, no. 6, pp. 1134-1150, 2022, doi: 10.1021/acsagscitech.2c00243. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsagscitech.2c00243
    9. P. Renganathan, E. O. R. Puente, N. V. Sukhanova, and L. A. Gaysina, “Hydroponics with microalgae and cyanobacteria: Emerging trends and opportunities in modern agriculture,” BioTech, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 27, 2024, doi: 10.3390/biotech13030027. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biotech13030027
    10. I. Szekely, and M. H. Jijakli, “Bioponics as a promising approach to sustainable agriculture: A review of the main methods for producing organic nutrient solution for hydroponics,” Water, vol. 14, no. 23, pp. 3975, 2022, doi: 10.3390/w14233975. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233975
    11. R. B. Malabadi, K. P. Kolkar, R. K. Chalannavar, K. V. C. Coronado, S. S. Mammadova, H. Baijnath, and G. Abdi, “Greenhouse farming: Hydroponic vertical farming-Internet of Things (IOT) Technologies: An updated review,” World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 2634-2686, 2024, doi: 10.30574/wjarr.2024.23.2.2595. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.23.2.2595
    12. O. D. Palmitessa, A. Signore, and P. Santamaria, “Advancements and future perspectives in nutrient film technique hydroponic system: A comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 15, pp. 1504792, 2024, doi: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1504792. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1504792
    13. G. Carrasco, F. Fuentes-Peñailillo, P. Manríquez, P. Rebolledo, R. Vega, K. Gutter, and M. Urrestarazu, “Enhancing leafy greens’ production: Nutrient film technique systems and automation in container-based vertical farming,” Agronomy, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 1932, 2024, doi: 10.3390/agronomy14091932. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091932
    14. A. G. Bhat, M. Hasan, D. K. Singh, R. N. Sahoo, M. Yeasin, V. Paradkar, S, Mukherjee, and S. V. Kumar, “Design and development of multilayer, nutrient film hydroponic vertical farming system for green leafy vegetables,” Journal of Community Mobilization and Sustainable Development, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 1243-1250, 2024, doi: 10.5958/2231-6736.2024.00248.X. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5958/2231-6736.2024.00248.X
    15. S. A. Gillani, R. Abbasi, P. Martinez, and R. Ahmad, “Comparison of energy-use efficiency for lettuce plantation under nutrient film technique and deep-water culture hydroponic systems,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 217, pp. 11-19, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2022.12.197. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2022.12.197
    16. S. Rajendran, T. Domalachenpa, H. Arora, P. Li, A. Sharma, and G. Rajauria, “Hydroponics: Exploring innovative sustainable technologies and applications across crop production, with Emphasis on potato mini-tuber cultivation,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 5, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26823. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26823
    17. M. N. Reza, K. H. Lee, M. R. Karim, M. A. Haque, E. Bicamumakuba, P. K. Dey, Y. Y. Jang, and S. O. Chung, “Trends of soil and solution nutrient sensing for open field and hydroponic cultivation in facilitated smart agriculture,” Sensors, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 453, 2025, doi: 10.3390/s25020453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s25020453
    18. O. A. Nitu, E. Ş. Ivan, A. S. Tronac, and A. Arshad, “Optimizing lettuce growth in nutrient film technique hydroponics: evaluating the impact of elevated oxygen concentrations in the root zone under LED illumination,” Agronomy, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 14(9), 1896, 2024, doi: 10.3390/agronomy14091896. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091896
    19. M. Rajalakshmi, and K. Gunasekaran, “Investigations on the money plant's nutrient removal efficiency in nutrient film technique hydroponic system employing synthetic wastewater,” Environmental Quality Management, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 70080, 2025, doi: 10.1002/tqem.70080. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.70080
    20. J. Liu, J. Masabni, and G. Niu, “Intermittent flow alleviated root zone stress and increased organic lettuce yield in nutrient film technique,” HortScience, vol. 60, no. 7, pp. 1208-1217, 2025, doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI18623-25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI18623-25
    21. S. Dhandapani, V. S. Philip, S. A. A. N. Nasreen, and B. S. Park, “Advanced growth device boosts hydroponic efficiency: Enhancing yield and quality while reducing crop production cost and algae contamination,” Environmental Technology & Innovation, vol. 37, pp. 104051, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.eti.2025.104051. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2025.104051
    22. T. Sangeetha, and E. Periyathambi, “Automatic nutrient estimator: distributing nutrient solution in hydroponic plants based on plant growth,” PeerJ Computer Science, vol. 10, pp. e1871, 2024, doi: 10.7717/peerj-cs.1871. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.1871
    23. B. Q. Nguyen, S. A. Kantoush, T. H. Nguyen, T. T. Bui, R. S. Nguyen, T. N. Doan, and D. N. Vo, “Cumulative impacts of interbasin water transfer and salinity intrusion on water security in central Vietnam,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 998, pp. 180250, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180250
    24. C. Kaya, “Intelligent environmental control in plant factories: integrating sensors, automation, and AI for optimal crop production,” Food and Energy Security, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. e70026, 2025, doi: 10.1002/fes3.70026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.70026
    25. M. E. Abalasei, D. Toma, M. Dorus, and C. Teodosiu, “The impact of climate change on water quality: A critical analysis,” Water, vol. 17, no. 21, pp. 3108, 2025, doi: 10.3390/w17213108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213108
    26. S. Dorel, M. G. Osman, C. V. Strejoiu, and G. Lazaroiu, “Exploring optimal charging strategies for off-grid solar photovoltaic systems: A comparative study on battery storage techniques,” Batteries, vol. 9, no. 9, pp. 470, 2023, doi: 10.3390/batteries9090470. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9090470
    27. M. Siregar, C. H. Pardosi, K. O. Bachri, T. Nur, and L. W. Pandjaitan, “Comparison of actual results and PVSyst simulation in the design of off-grid solar power generation system (PLTS) in Karuni Village, Southwest Sumba,” Jurnal Elektro, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1-12, 2024, doi: 10.25170/jurnalelektro.v17i1.5419. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25170/jurnalelektro.v17i1.5419
    28. I. N. Zhafarina, “Developing a 6-kilowatt-peak off-grid solar power station (PLTS) at the Az-Zawiyah Foundation in Tanjung Batu, Ogan Ilir, South Sumatra,” VOLT: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Teknik Elektro, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 9-21, 2024, doi: 10.30870/volt.v9i1.24439.
    29. A. Boudaoud, M. A. Atillah, H. Stitou, and M. Aqil, “Power performance analysis in off-grid photovoltaic battery system with ANFIS-FL based MPPT under partial shading effects,” Nigerian Journal of Technological Development, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 196-209, 2025, doi: 10.63746/njtd.v22i5.3640.
    30. R. P. Prastio, P. Megantoro, S. Arifin, I. R. Mutiarso, A. R. Muzadi, F. B. Firmansyah, and S. D. Perkasa, “The utilization of 900 Wp off-grid solar power plant for product intensification of a hydroponics farmer group,” Jurnal Pengabdian dan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Indonesia, vol. 2, no. 8, pp. 302-308, 2022, doi: 10.59247/jppmi.v2i8.128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20473/jlm.v7i2.2023.220-229
    31. Y. T. Wassie, and E. O. Ahlgren, “Performance and reliability analysis of an off-grid PV mini-grid system in rural tropical Africa: A case study in southern Ethiopia,” Development Engineering, vol. 8, pp. 100106, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.deveng.2022.100106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.deveng.2022.100106
    32. R. Naresh, S. K. Jadav, M. Singh, A. Patel, B. Singh, S. Beese, and S. K. Pandey, “Role of hydroponics in improving water-use efficiency and food security,” International Journal of Environment and Climate Change, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 608-633, 2024, doi: 10.9734/IJECC/2024/v14i23976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2024/v14i23976
    33. M. K. Khan, M. H. Zafar, T. Riaz, M. Mansoor, and N. Akhtar, “Enhancing efficient solar energy harvesting: a process-in-loop investigation of MPPT control with a novel stochastic algorithm,” Energy Conversion and Management: X, vol. 21, pp. 100509, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100509. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100509
    34. M. L. Katche, M. L., Makokha, A. B., Zachary, S. O., & Adaramola, M. S. (2023). A comprehensive review of maximum power point tracking (mppt) techniques used in solar pv systems. Energies, 16(5), 2206, 2023, doi: 10.3390/en16052206. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052206
    35. S. J. Yaqoob, H. Arnoos, N. T. Alwan, M. Bajaj, I. M. Alwan, M. H. A. Aljanabi, and M. S. Geremew, “Advanced maximum power point tracking in photovoltaic systems: A comprehensive review of classical, ai‐based, and metaheuristic optimization techniques,” Engineering Reports, vol. 7, no. 9, pp. e70404, 2025, doi: 10.1002/eng2.70404. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.70404
    36. M. A. Abdelhamid, T. K. Abdelkader, H. A. Sayed, Z. Zhang, X. Zhao, and M. F. Atia, “Design and evaluation of a solar powered smart irrigation system for sustainable urban agriculture,” Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11761, 2025, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-94251-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94251-3
    37. E. Villagran, J. J. Espitia, F. A. Velázquez, A. Sarmiento, D. A. S. Velandia, and J. Rodriguez, “Artificial intelligence in solar-assisted greenhouse systems: A technical, systematic and bibliometric review of energy integration and efficiency advances,” Technologies, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 574, 2025, doi: 10.3390/technologies13120574. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13120574
    38. K. Kim, and J. I. Choi, “Effect of cell-to-cell variation and module configuration on the performance of lithium-ion battery systems,” Applied Energy, vol. 352, pp. 121888, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121888. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121888
    39. F. J. Sepúlveda, I. Montero, F. Barrena, M. T. Miranda, and J. I. Arranz, “Design and energy analysis of photovoltaic-battery prototype considering different voltage levels,” Batteries, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 16, 2022, doi: 10.3390/batteries9010016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries9010016
    40. F. J. Sepúlveda, I. Montero, F. Barrena, M. A. Domínguez, and M. T. Miranda, “Efficiency evaluation of photovoltaic systems with batteries considering different voltage levels,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 63, pp. 106971, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.est.2023.106971. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106971
    41. S. Manna, D. K. Singh, A. K. Akella, H. Kotb, K. M. AboRas, H. M. Zawbaa, and S. Kamel, “Design and implementation of a new adaptive MPPT controller for solar PV systems,” Energy Reports, vol. 9, pp. 1818-1829, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2022.12.152. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.12.152
    42. A. M. Eltamaly, Z. A. Almutairi, and M. A. Abdelhamid, “Modern optimization algorithm for improved performance of maximum power point tracker of partially shaded PV systems,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 13, pp. 5228, 2023, doi: 10.3390/en16135228. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135228
    43. L. Zemite, J. Kozadajevs, L. Jansons, I. Bode, E. Dzelzitis, and K. Palkova, “Integrating renewable energy solutions in small-scale industrial facilities,” Energies, vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 2792, 2024, doi: 10.3390/en17112792. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112792
    44. N. Alfred, V. Guntreddi, A. N. Shuaibu, and M. S. Bakare, “A fuzzy logic based energy management model for solar PV-wind standalone with battery storage system,” Scientific Reports, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 24660, 2025, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-09662-z. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-09662-z
    45. S. Khan, K. Sudhakar, M. H. Yusof, and S. Sundaram, “Review of building integrated photovoltaics system for electric vehicle charging,” The Chemical Record, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 202300308, 2024, doi: 10.1002/tcr.202300308. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/tcr.202300308
    46. H. A. Helmy, A. M. El-Rifaie, A. A. Youssef, A. Haggag, H. Hamad, and M. Eltokhy, “Improving solar energy-harvesting wireless sensor network (SEH-WSN) with hybrid Li-Fi/Wi-Fi, integrating markov model, sleep scheduling, and smart switching algorithms,” Technologies, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 437, 2025, doi: 10.3390/technologies13100437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13100437
    47. L. Shi, Y. Liu, C. Sun, Y. Guo, D. Wang, Y. Liu, and C. Wang, “Energy solution for rural household in remote cold regions: An innovative photovoltaic-based thermal energy storage system,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 343, pp. 120216, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120216
    48. S. I. Orakwue, H. M. R. Al-Khafaji, V. C. Ikenyiri, and V. C. Godson, “Solar powered automated hydroponic farming system with iot feedback,” Journal of Information Technology Management, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 26-38, 2022, doi: 10.22059/JITM.2022.87261.
    49. Y. Islamiati, and T. Dewi, “IoT monitoring for solar powered pump applied in hydroponic house,” International Journal of Research in Vocational Studies (IJRVOCAS), vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 22-30, 2022, doi: 10.53893/ijrvocas.v2i2.102. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53893/ijrvocas.v2i2.102
    50. A. S. Alqahtani, A. Mubarakali, P. Parthasarathy, G. Mahendran, and U. A. Kumar, “Retracted article: Solar PV fed brushless drive with optical encoder for agriculture applications using IoT and FPGA,” Optical and Quantum Electronics, vol. 54, no. 11, pp. 715, 2022, doi: 10.1007/s11082-022-04065-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-022-04065-0
    51. Nejatian, A., Niane, A. A., Makkawi, M., Al-Sham’aa, K., Shamsi, S. A. R. A., Naqbi, T. S. A. M. A., ... & Juma, J. E. (2025). Solar-Powered RO–Hydroponic Net House: A Scalable Model for Water-Efficient Tomato Production in Arid Regions. Sustainability, 17(24), 11298, 2025, doi: 10.3390/su172411298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411298

Categories